Chronology Of Jubilees

Sabbatical years

It is evident that each 7th year in ancient Israel was once celebrated as a Sabbatical year. In 7th years crops were not sown or harvested.

In the late Second-Temple Era, the custom of letting the land rest in each 7th year was an important tenant of Jewish law. Flavius Josephus, a priest-historian who lived in the First Century CE, described the Jewish custom of observing the Sabbatical law in some detail. The writings of the rabbis and certain ancient contracts also make it clear that Jews living under the late Second-Temple were careful to observe each of the Sabbatical years.

The law concerning the keeping of a Sabbatical year was complied with at a national level. Throughout the territory of Judea, it would have been mandatory - as a tenant of the constitution - foor farmers to observe each 7th year as a Sabbatical year. The requirement to celebrate Sabbatical years throughout Judea would have been in force until the Second-Temple fell (in 70 CE).

Power of the priesthood

Under the Temple system, it is clear that the priests were responsible for announcing festivals and special events. Furthermore, the priests were responsible for scheduling certain agricultural activities. It remarkably seems that the priesthood regulated just when the various crops were reaped

To augment the decision as to when it was permissible for Israel to gather in crops, the priests appear to have used a weekly schedule (refer to Jeremiah 5, 24). The grain harvest, the collection of wine-grapes, and the ultimate gathering of olives could only be harvested on schedule.

Thus, year-in and year-out, the priests appear to have held a significant role in regulating the harvest-cycle. The priesthood controlled when it was permissible to only eat old-stores, and when it was permissible to gather in new crops.

Because the priesthood officially scheduled the harvest-cycle, Sabbatical years in the late Second-Temple Era are rather easy to identify.

The jubilee-year

Some ancient sources tend to indicate that the late Second-Temple practice of observing 7th years sprang from an earlier practice of celebrating 7-sets of 7-years. The more primal practice of celebrating 7-sets of 7-years is described in biblical texts - as follows.

"Six years thou shalt sow thy field, and six years thou shalt prune thy vineyard, and gather in the fruit thereof; But in the seventh year shall be a sabbath of rest unto the land...That which groweth of its own accord of thy harvest thou shalt not reap, neither gather the grapes of thy vine undressed: for it is a year of rest unto the land... And thou shalt number seven sabbaths of years unto thee, seven times seven years; and the space of the seven sabbaths of years shall be unto thee forty and nine years. Then shalt thou cause the trumpet of the jubile to sound ... And ye shall hallow the fiftieth year, and proclaim liberty throughout all the land... A jubile shall that fiftieth year be unto you: ye shall not sow, neither reap that which groweth of itself in it, nor gather the grapes in it of thy vine undressed. For it is the jubile; it shall be holy unto you: ye shall eat the increase thereof out of the field." (from Leviticus, Chapter 25: 3-12 - English language translation based upon the KJV).

It is thus rather clear that a 50th year (like the Sabbatical year) was once specially celebrated (perhaps at some time prior to the late Second-Temple).

According to the more original practice, it seems that 7-sets of 7-years were first counted-out and then a jubilee year (or a 50th year) was additionally counted. The 50th - like the 7th - was specially observed (where in each 50th, crops were not sown, tended, or reaped).

Influence of the Greeks

The prospect that a 50th year was more anciently observed raises the question as to why/when a jubilee-year was no longer celebrated under the late Second-Temple. The point in time when a jubilee-year was last observed appears to have been sometime within a rather lengthy period when the Greeks and then the Romans were in control of Judea (as further explained below).

It seems that Judea was at first subjugated by Alexander the Great in 331 BCE. Afterwards, Judeans were required to pay tribute or taxes to the more powerful Greeks. The requirement to pay taxes was tightened under the subsequent rule of the Romans (who likewise imposed taxes upon the Judeans).

Thus, the time and the reason for why a jubilee-year was not observed under the late Second-Temple was surely related - at least in part - to a requirement on the part of the Judeans to pay tribute to the Greeks and later to the Romans.

The books of Josephus (and the Maccabees) indicate that the Greeks gave the Judeans an exemption from paying taxes in those years that were Sabbatical years. The Romans likewise were generous enough to reduce taxes in each 7th year.

Even through tax concessions were granted, it is apparent the jubilee-year was no longer celebrated in the late Second-Temple Era. Sources from this era make it clear that by the time of the 177th year Seleucid, Judeans may have no longer been celebrating a jubilee-year. As shown below, these several sources make it unmistakably clear that a 50th year was not officially observed after the Second Century BCE.

The possibility that a jubilee-year was not officially celebrated after the 177th Seleucid year (or 135-134 BCE) comes from late Second-Temple sources. These several sources confirm that a cycle of 7th years was celebrated in an unbroken cycle. The celebration of the unbroken cycle of 7-years can possibly be traced as far back in time as the year 135-134 BCE.

Times of the Gentiles

Early Jewish literature shows that the land could be cultivated in 7th years under special circumstances.

After the Second-Temple fell, some among the rabbis taught that it was permissible for Jews to refrain from observing Sabbatical years when living on foreign occupied lands. It was also considered permissible to not rest on 7th days - but only under certain circumstances.

It then becomes significant that the time of the occupation of Judea by the Greeks and Romans constituted circumstances under which it was probably permissible to cultivate land in 7th years. During the lengthy period of foreign occupation, it seems that national sovereignty and personal freedom were - at times - very hard to bargain for.

Among the traditions that surely were surrendered during these 'times of the Gentiles' was that of the jubilee-year celebration.

The law concerning the celebration of a jubilee-year embodied the concept of Israelite occupation and ownership of the land. In each 50th year land titles were returned to their previous owners (refer to Leviticus, Chapter 25).

Thus the keeping of a jubilee-year was related to the maintenance of national sovereignty (and to the retention of land ownership).

The celebration of the jubilee-year literally guaranteed the retention of the ownership of the land by Israelites.

The requirement to celebrate a jubilee-year - in association with Israelite occupation of the land - is mirrored in the book of Jubilees - as follows:

"... I told thee of the Sabbaths of the land [= 7th years] on Mount Sinai, and I told thee of the jubilee years in the sabbaths of years but the year thereof have I not told thee till ye enter the land which ye are to possess. And the land also shall keep its sabbaths [= 7th years] while they dwell upon it, and they shall know the jubilee year. Wherefore I have ordained for thee the year-weeks and the years and the jubilees... And the jubilees shall pass by, until Israel is cleansed from all guilt of fornication, and uncleanness, and pollution, and sin, and error, and dwells with confidence in all the land... " (Jubilees, Chapter 50: 1-5, translation by R.H. Charles).

It seems that the observance of a jubilee-year was inherently contingent upon Israelite ownership and occupation of the land. Essentially, as long as Israelites dwelled in foreign lands, or when foreigners were in control of Israelite lands, it would have been meaningless for Israelites to celebrate jubilee-years. Thus, for as long as the 'times of the Gentiles' lasted - the celebration of a jubilee-year was probably not required in Judea.

It is clear that tribute was required during Greek-Roman occupation. The right to farm a piece of land would essentially have been granted by a foreign sponsored tax collector. The land was thus let-out to farm on the basis of a system akin to paying rent.

Under these special circumstances, it's easy to recognize why a jubilee-year was not celebrated under the late Second-Temple. Under Gentile control, it would have been contradictory for Judeans to pay tribute off the land in the 50th year and to not cultivate the fields.

It is here significant that the law to celebrate a jubilee-year would have continued to be part of the national constitution - but only if foreign occupiers specifically allowed the Judeans to celebrate it. Both the Greeks and the Romans did - in fact - grant Judeans a reduction or exemption from paying taxes in 7th years (as previously cited). The cited exemption (which allowed the celebration of 7th years) apparently was not necessarily granted in the respect of celebrating a jubilee-year (or the 50th year).

The eventual keeping of each 7th year in the late Second-Temple Era sprang from a constitutional requirement to celebrate 7-sets of 7-years plus a jubilee-year. Due to the influence and occupation of the Greeks and Romans, Judeans appear to have relaxed the requirement to celebrate a jubilee-year.

The late Second-Temple

As is more thoroughly documented in our online document entitled: 'Chronology of 70-Years' the chronology of Sabbatical years under the late Second-Temple can rather satisfactorily be determined - as follows:

• The year 135-134 BCE (or the year 177 of the Seleucid Era) was noted to be a 7th year in the writings of Flavius Josephus. In 'Antiquities of the Jews' he noted: "... there came around the year in which the Jews are wont to remain inactive, for they observe this custom every seventh year, just as on the seventh day." (Book 13:8:1).
• The same year (135-134 BCE) was also noted to be a year of 'rest' in 'Wars of the Jews'. In this book, Josephus noted the following: "the year of rest came on, upon which the Jews rest every seventh year as they do on every seventh day".
• The year 44-43 BCE could have been a 7th year. In 'Antiquities of the Jews', Josephus stated that the Jews had a legal agreement with the Romans concerning a reduction of taxes in 7th years. In substantiation of this, he cited a decree from one of the Roman emperors. The decree stated when Caius Caesar was consul for the fifth time he ordered in the 2nd year of the current land-use agreement that a deduction in the amount of taxes that land users paid to the Romans should be granted to the Jews (refer to Antiquities, Book 14:10:5-6). If the current year (44-43 BCE) did correspond to the cited 2nd year of the land-use agreement then it might be possible to interpret this passage to mean that the respective year did correspond to a 7th year (as celebrated by the Jews).
• Josephus rehearsed another Roman decree concerning a grant to Jews allowing celebration of the 7th years. This respective decree substantiates that Jews - under the late Second-Temple - positively were celebrating Sabbatical years. "[Judea should pay a tribute yearly]... excepting the seventh, which they call the sabbatical year, because thereon they neither receive the fruits of their trees, nor do they sow their land... [taxes are to be paid] every year, the seventh year, which they call the Sabbatic year, excepted, whereon they neither plough, nor receive the product of their trees." (Antiquities, Book 14:10:6).
• The year 37-36 BCE appears to have been both a 7th year and 70th year (as noted by Josephus). This year - the year when Herod was declared king at Jerusalem - is referred to as a 'hebdomatikon' year as follows: "Now the Jews that were enclosed within the walls of the city fought against Herod with great alacrity and zeal (for the whole nation was gathered together); they also gave out many prophecies about the temple, and many things agreeable to the people, as if God would deliver them out of the dangers they were in ... this happened to be a Sabbatic year [or literally, a 'hebdomatikon' year]" ('Antiquities of the Jews', 14:16:2).
• The year 37-36 BCE is noted to have been both a 7th year and a 70th year in a second passage of 'Antiquities of the Jews'. This instance is recorded in the next book as follows: "At this time Herod, now he had got Jerusalem under his power... the Sabbatic year [or literally, a 'hebdomatidon' year]... was still going on, and forced the country to lie still uncultivated, since we are forbidden to sow our land in that year." (Book 15:1:2).
• The year 55-56 CE (autumn-to-autumn) was almost surely a 7th year - based on an ancient Deed of Loan. This paper was recovered at Wadi Murabba near Bethlehem.This legal note explicitly stated that a 'year-of-release' was underway in the 2nd year of Nero Caesar. Because Nero ascended to the throne in autumn of the year 54 CE, there is hardly any doubt that the cited Sabbatical year (autumn-to-autumn) largely corresponded to 2nd year of the reign of Nero.
• The year 69-70 CE (autumn-to-autumn) is shown to have been a 7th year by the early rabbis. The Taanith indicates that the Second-Temple was destroyed in a post-sabbatical year (B. Taan., 29a). The Arakin has "thus it is found that it [= the destruction of the Second-Temple] happened during the last part of a septennate" (B. Arak., 12 b). A Third Century rabbi (Hunna) computed the sabbatical cycle based upon the fact that the Second-Temple was destroyed in a sabbath year (B. Azar., 9b).Rabbi Jose (Yose) ben Khalapha commented that the year prior to the destruction of the Second Temple was a sabbatical year (Seder Olam, 30). Because the Second-Temple was destroyed in autumn of the year 70 CE then it's easy to recognize from the rabbis that a Sabbatical year occurred immediately prior to the destruction of the Temple. Essentially, the Temple is indicated to have been destroyed in autumn of the year 70 CE very close to the boundary of a 7th year (at the end of the respective 7-year cycle).
• The year 139-140 CE (autumn-to-autumn) also appears to have been a 7th year - as based upon another legal paper recovered at Wadi Murabba. This respective contract (Mur 24E) was written-down in late autumn of the year 134 CE. This sub-lease agreement describes what appears to be a 5-year lease term. The respective lease was to last until the 'eve of the Sabbatical year'. It is clear that 5-years from autumn in the year 134 CE ends with autumn of the year 139 CE. Then, this respective year (139 CE) would have corresponded to the very beginning of a 'year-of-release'.

Based upon the indicated unbroken chronology of 7-years after about the 177th Seleucid year (as cited), it is quite clear that the priesthood of the late Second-Temple Era did not officially celebrate a jubilee-year (or a 50th year).

From the cited late Second-Temple sources, the chronology of the once observed cycle of 7-years is rather easy to reconstruct. It is clear that a continuous run of 7-year-cycles was counted between about 135 BCE and 139 CE. This period of history straddles some 273 years (or contains 39 cycles of 7-years). During this lengthy stretch of history, Sabbatical years were observed in the years 135 BCE, 44 BCE, 37 BCE, 55 CE, 69 CE, and 139 CE.

Clearly, Sabbatical years were celebrated in an unbroken cycle throughout the late Second-Temple Era. It is of special interest that if the cycle of 7-years was extended from the First-Century into this Twenty-First Century then a 7th year would have occurred in correspondence with the year 2000-2001 CE (from autumn-to-autumn). Essentially, the year 2000-2001 CE corresponded to the occurrence of a Sabbatical year - as an extension of the same cycle of 7-years as was once celebrated in the late Second-Temple Era.

Chronology of jubilees

The chronology of jubilee-years is a bit more difficult to determine. This is because a jubilee-year was not routinely celebrated in the late Second-Temple Era (as cited).

Even though a jubilee-year has not been celebrated in the land of Israel for quite some time now, the topic of the once observed jubilee-year continues to hold considerable interest among both Jews and Christians alike. The ancient custom of celebrating a very special year - a time when liberty was once proclaimed throughout the land - paints a vision of an early society that was truly grand.

The time when early Israel once celebrated a year-of-liberty (a 50th year) can be determined to within a degree of some certainty (as is further shown below).

A compilation and analysis of various priestly sources tends to indicate the chronology of a once performed 50-year-cycle. (As such, it remarkably seems that early Israel did - in fact - once observe a year-of-liberty).

As is shown in the prior section, it was surely at a time earlier than the late Second-Temple when a jubilee-year was last celebrated. The source information - as can be extracted from ancient priestly sources - tends to indicate that a 50th year would certainly have been celebrated in Judea in the year 171-170 BCE (celebrated from autumn to autumn). It is less certain if a jubilee-year was celebrated 50-years later in the year of 121-120 BCE.

The identification of the once celebrated jubilee-cycle is more thoroughly explained throughout subsequent sections.

The location of a once observed jubilee-year is ultimately essential for identifying which year (or years) in this modern era corresponds to the occurrence of a jubilee-year.

Based upon the cited priestly sources, it appears that the year 1980-81 (autumn-to-autumn) last corresponded to the once celebrated jubilee-year. These sources likewise indicate that - in the Twenty-First Century - the year 2030-31 (autumn-to-autumn) will again correspond to the once celebrated jubilee-year.

It is very significant that the once celebrated 50-year-cycle was probably defined by a lunar-calendar. This respective lunar-calendar is more fully documented in our online article entitled: 'The Jubilee-Time-Cycle'.

A change in the priesthood

One of the more significant reasons a jubilee-year came to no longer be celebrated in the late Second-Temple Era can be traced to a monumental change in the priesthood and the Temple system. It seems that in the year 167 BCE the Greek ruler Antiochus IV assumed control of the Temple and deposed the current high priest.

The actions of Antiochus IV are detailed at length in the books of the Maccabees, and also in the writings of the Jewish historian, Flavius Josephus.

Judeans almost immediately took up arms in opposition to Greek control of the Temple. The Jewish armies were under the leadership of the family of Asamoneus, or the Maccabees.

The initial part of the revolt was largely successful in that Judeans soon regained control of the Temple. Even with the revolt ongoing, the Temple building was cleansed and rededicated in 164 BCE.

Eventually a deal was worked out between the Judeans and Antiochus (and his son). This truce agreement granted the revolutionary forces - headed up by the Maccabees - the governorship of Jerusalem and all of Judea.

Thus, it was at the time of the Jewish revolt from under Antiochus IV that the government of Judea underwent a major change. A new dynasty of priest-kings (the lineage from Asamoneus) ascended to the office of both King and High Priest (160 BCE).

The occupation of the civil and religious governments by the descendants of Asamoneus then seems to be an additional factor for the ultimate observance of an unbroken 7-year-cycle. It is probable that the new ruling dynasty elected to eventually modify the celebration of the 50-year-cycle.

The Asamoneans (or Maccabees) appear to have arrived at some kind of an agreement with the Greeks that allowed them to occupy the throne at Jerusalem. This truce may have been contingent upon the promise to extract tribute from the Judeans (as previously cited).

Because the dynasty of Asamoneus assumed control of the Temple system in 160 BCE, and because it is very clear that a jubilee-year was not observed under the late Second-Temple (as cited), it is logical to believe that the last time a jubilee-cycle was celebrated may have been prior to the cited Jewish revolt.

A jubilee-year may have no longer been celebrated in Judea after about the time the Maccabees ascended to the throne of Jerusalem.

A 50-year cycle

From the premise that prior to the time of the Jewish revolt in 167 BCE a jubilee-cycle of 50-years was certainly celebrated, it would be of considerable significance to identify the location of a specific Sabbatical year in that earlier time period. (The location of a 7th year - as it was once counted under the jubilee-system of counting 7-sets of 7-years plus a jubilee-year - would be a huge clue for ultimately determining the location of a jubilee-year or a 50th year).

What seems clear enough is that at some point along the distant timeline (perhaps prior to 167 BCE) a jubilee-year was certainly celebrated.

It is additionally evident - and significantly so - that after the respective jubilee-year was celebrated, a subsequent count of 7-sets of 7-years would thereafter have transpired.

Because it is very certain that the year 135-134 BCE was at least partially celebrated as a Sabbatical year in a system that only counted 7-year-cycles, the location of the more primal jubilee-count becomes a little more certain.

Assuming that a jubilee-year was certainly celebrated prior to the time of the Jewish revolt in 167 BCE, the very last occurrence of a jubilee year is ultimately limited to a rather narrow time-range.

The 150th Seleucid year

It is most fortunate that a Sabbatical year is noted to have occurred in the 150th year of the Seleucid Era. (This occurrence is mentioned in both the book of 'Antiquities of the Jews', and also in the books of the Maccabees).

The equivalency of the 150th year Seleucid to modern dating depends upon the epoch of Seleucid chronology (which apparently began in the autumn of the year 312 BCE). Thus, 150 years from the epoch (312-311 BCE) is equivalent to the year 162-161 BCE (autumn-to-autumn). The problem here is that 162-161 BCE doesn't quite align with 7-year chronology (as it was reckoned in the late Second-Temple Era after 135 BCE).

Because the noted Sabbatical year should either exactly align with subsequent 7-year chronology, or perhaps exceed it by the distance of 1 year earlier, it is rather evident that the noted Sabbatical year would minimally have been celebrated in the year 163-162 BCE.

In this respective Sabbatical year (163-162 BCE), the high priest had been deposed (167 BCE) but the Maccabees had not yet ascended to the office of the high priest (160 BCE). Therefore, the method by which this respective Sabbatical year was reckoned would probably have been by the old-style jubilee-year determination. (Note that in the year 163-162 BCE, the new dynasty of ruling priests had not yet officially ascended into office).

It is then rather significant that this respective Sabbatical year (celebrated in about 163-162 BCE) was transitional in that a jubilee-year had probably been celebrated prior to it. As such, the approximate year of 163 would have been a 7th year (amid the 7-sets of 7-years that pertained to the ancient jubilee-year count). Thus, the location of this respective Sabbatical year - in the time of the Jewish revolt - is a huge clue for identifying just when the jubilee-cycle was once observed.

To be fully specific about this respective Sabbatical year, it must be pointed out that from an early time in ancient Israel, a solar-based calendar of weeks was popular (especially in the environs of Jerusalem). This respective calendar was predicated upon an ongoing count of 7-day and 7-year cycles - as more thoroughly explained in our online document entitled: 'The Significance of 70-years'. The cited 70-year count (a kingly cycle) was seemingly based upon an annual count of always 52 weeks, or 364 days. What is significant about this ancient calendar is that the annual count was oriented toward the spring season of the year (not the autumn).

The book of Enoch is explicit in showing an annual-count of 364-days oriented to the time of the vernal equinox (a time of the year when equal parts of day and night were observed). The rabbis also noted that the original 'king's year' (or the year of the Jewish kings) was oriented to the spring season of the year. By the time of the Third Century CE, the rabbis were in debate as to why the year for the Jewish kings was being reckoned from the fall season - when originally (in the time of the Jewish kings) the year was reckoned from the spring season.

It seems that not only did the respective Sabbatical year (celebrated in approximately 163-162 BCE) pertain to a 7th year of the once celebrated jubilee-cycle (trailing the time of a celebrated jubilee-year), but that the respective Sabbatical year corresponded with the occurrence of a 7th year amid the kingly count of 70-years.

As is shown in 'The Significance of 70-years', the epoch of a 70th year would have occurred in the year 177-176 BCE (reckoned from spring-to-spring). This indicates that the year 163-162 BCE (spring-to-spring) also equated to a 7th year of the once reckoned kingly cycle of 70-years.

It is thus remarkable that for a rather lengthy stretch of time (both before and after the year 163-162 BCE) each 7th year of the jubilee-cycle (reckoned autumn-to-autumn) partially overlapped each 7th year of the popular solar-calendar (reckoned spring-to-spring).

From this indicated overlap of both cycles (priestly and kingly) it can ultimately be recognized that the respective Sabbatical year was probably celebrated from autumn of the year 164 BCE to autumn of the year 163 BCE.

During this same year, the 7th year of the kingly cycle commenced in spring of the year 163 BCE and ended in spring of the year 162 BCE.

Thus a half-year overlap (from spring-to-autumn) between both calendars is indicated to have occurred in the year 163 BCE.

The half-year overlap (from spring-to-autumn of the year 163 BCE) between the two calendar systems seems to exactly explain how and why only a 7-year-cycle came to eventually be reckoned in the late Second-Temple Era.

As is further shown below, a jubilee-year was probably officially celebrated in ancient Israel in the year 171-170 BCE (reckoned from autumn-to-autumn). After this jubilee-year celebration was over, a trailing set of 7-year cycles would have been celebrated. In autumn of the year 121 BCE, the celebration of a subsequent jubilee-year should have commenced. Throughout this range of years, leading up to the possible celebration of a jubilee-year in 121 BCE, the 7-year cycle (by solar-calendar reckoning) overlapped the spring-to-autumn portion of each 7-year cycle (by the lunar-based jubilee count). Assuming that a jubilee-year was celebrated in 121 BCE, then each 7-year-cycle of the two calendar systems (solar and lunar) would have continued to overlap together (between autumn and spring) for the distance of another 49-years. It consequently seems that the year 121-120 BCE (autumn-to-autumn) was the last time a jubilee-year could have been celebrated in Judea. After this year, it is clear that jubilee-years were no longer officially celebrated in Judea. Instead, each 7th year of the cited calendar of 'weeks' came to be celebrated as a Sabbatical year (but reckoned from autumn-to-autumn).

From the alignment of these overlapping 7-year cycles, it's easy to recognize more of just how, why, and when the celebration of the jubilee-year-cycle was changed into the celebration of a cycle of only 7-continuous-years.

Ezekiel's Temple vision

The author of the book of Ezekiel tends to confirm that a 50th year did certainly occur in the year 171-170 BCE. This respective author - a priest - lived 4 centuries prior to the time of the cited Jewish revolt in 167 BCE. Consequently the author of Ezekiel was almost surely acquainted with the celebration of the jubilee-cycle (as it was celebrated by the early order of high priests).

It is of great significance that this respective author was living at the very time when the first Temple was sacked and destroyed by the Babylonians (587-586 BCE).

In the last part of the book of Ezekiel, the author gives a futuristic description of a restored Temple system. Throughout 'nine full chapters', the author meticulously describes a number of details concerning a revived Temple.

What appears to be unusual is that the author-priest was cautious to explicitly date the year in which his vision of the new-Temple was received:

"In the five and twentieth year of our captivity, in the beginning of the year, in the tenth [day] of the month, in the fourteenth year after that the city was smitten, in the selfsame day the hand of the LORD was upon me, and brought me thither". (AV text of Ezekiel, Chapter 40:1).

Because the Babylonians ultimately burned the city of Jerusalem late in the year 586 BCE, the respective year that Ezekiel received his vision - 14 years afterward - would have corresponded to the year 572 BCE.

Here, it is significant that in other portions of this book, the respective author appears to use a kingly dating system (or a time-tracking system pegged to the exact time of the king's captivity). The king's captivity is indicated to have commenced in the year 597 BCE. Consequently, the year that corresponded to 25 years after the captivity would probably have been the year 572 BCE (reckoned spring-to-spring).

The double dating tends to confirm that Ezekiel received his vision of the new-Temple in the year 572-571 BCE (reckoned from spring to spring).

Based upon the previous analysis, it ultimately becomes obvious that Ezekiel could have received his vision of a new Temple in correspondence with the 49th year of a 50th year-cycle. The respective Sabbatical year hypothetically corresponded with the time of a pending jubilee-year (celebrated from autumn-to-autumn in the year 571-570 BCE).

It is ultimately easy to recognize that the occurrence of a jubilee-year - prior to the time of the Jewish revolt - may have occurred in the year 171-170 BCE (as previously cited). This means that the occurrence of a jubilee-year in the time of Ezekiel hypothetically occurred 400 years earlier - in the year 571-570 BCE).

These alignments indicate that Ezekiel could have received his most remarkable vision of a new-Temple at about the time of the epoch of a jubilee-year.

The epoch of a jubilee-year perhaps explains why the respective author of Ezekiel (a priest) drew such special attention to the year date of his receiving the vision. (This respective priest-author identified the vision at 25 years from the time of the captivity, and the priest-author also identified the vision at 14 years from the destruction of Jerusalem). The meticulous identification of the date of the Temple vision tends to indicate some certain significance about the year-date in which the vision was received. (Perhaps this year-date would have been specially understood by the priest-class - or by those who had maintained the Temple system - as pertaining to the epoch of a jubilee-year).

Haggai and Zechariah

In substantiation of the hypothesis that Ezekiel's Temple vision was received in association with the epoch of a jubilee-year, the books of Haggai and of Zechariah can be recited.

The authors of both Haggai and Zechariah were prophets and they both recorded a divinely received message concerning the construction of the new Temple (just beginning).

The respective authors - like the author of Ezekiel - were carefful to record the calendar date when their respective messages were received.

It is here of very special interest that many of the messages concerning the construction of a new Temple (two chapters in Haggai and six chapters in Zechariah, or 'eight total chapters') were received in the year 521-520 BCE (the 2nd year of Darius II).

Thus, it is clear that if a jubilee-year did occur in the time of Ezekiel (in 571-570 BCE) then the cited 8 chapters recorded by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah were likewise written-down in association with the time of a jubilee-year (in 521-520 BCE).

It is significant that the latter occurrence of a hypothetical jubilee-year in the time of Haggai-Zechariah (521-520 BCE) occurred 50-years later than did the occurrence of jubilee-year in the time of Ezekiel (571-570 BCE).

These alignments (located 50-years apart and spaced in alignment with the Sabbatical year configuration of 121 BCE) perhaps point to the basic structure of the once adhered to jubilee-cycle of 50 years.

Jubilee-years

Based upon the cited hypothesis that the years 571-570 BCE and 521-520 BCE corresponded to jubilee-years, the probable chronology of the jubilee-time-cycle can be extended across a wide number of centuries.

Beginning with the jubilee-year in 571-570 BCE (which probably occurred in the time of the priest Ezekiel) and ending with the year in 121-120 BCE (as the time of the last possible jubilee-year celebration) the following chronological sequence is indicated:

• A 50th year corresponded to 571-570 BCE
• A 50th year corresponded to 521-520 BCE
• A 50th year corresponded to 471-470 BCE
• A 50th year corresponded to 421-420 BCE
• A 50th year corresponded to 371-370 BCE
• A 50th year corresponded to 321-320 BCE
• A 50th year corresponded to 271-270 BCE
• A 50th year corresponded to 221-220 BCE
• A 50th year corresponded to 171-170 BCE
• A 50th year corresponded to 121-120 BCE

The rabbis noted that both Sabbatical years and jubilee-years were celebrated in correspondence with a year that was reckoned from autumn to autumn.

The hypothetical chronology of jubilee-years (as presented) is made more certain by the chain of 7-year-cycles that came after the last celebrated jubilee-year. Essentially, it seems that a jubilee-year may have last been celebrated in 121-120 BCE. After the year 121-120 BCE, it appears that only a cycle of 7-years was thereafter observed.

The captivity

To further investigate the hypothesis that a jubilee-year was celebrated prior to the time of the cited Jewish revolt, the author of Ezekiel shows that calendar intercalation may have occurred between the 5th and 6th year of the captivity.

In Ezekiel, Chapter 1, a date corresponding to the 5th year and 4th month and 5th day of the captivity is listed. In Chapter 8, a subsequent date corresponding to the 6th year and 6th month and 5th day of the captivity is listed. It is ultimately significant that an analysis of Chapter 3:15 and Chapter 4:5-6 indicates that the day count between the recorded dates should have accrued to at least 437 days.

The dates and day counts recorded by the author of Ezekiel tends to indicate that some kind of calendar intercalation was inserted between July-August of 592 BCE and September-October of 591 BCE.

If a jubilee-year began in September-October of the year 571, then one of the Sabbatical years leading up to this respective jubilee would have ended in September-October of the year 592 BCE.

The possibility then is that some kind of calendar intercalation may have occurred in association with the occurrence of a 7th year of the jubilee-cycle. (For additional information, refer to: 'The Jubilee-Time-Cycle').

The record of Ezekiel indicates that some kind of calendar intercalation did occur - possibly in association with the celebration of a Sabbatical year. This respective Sabbatical year (593-592 BCE) was celebrated in association with 7-sets of 7-years (leading up to the time a jubilee-year would hypothetically have been celebrated in 571-570 BCE).

Ezra and Nehemiah

Another series of Sabbatical years - which presumably occurred in the original jubilee-cycle - can be identified in the era when Ezrra the priest and Nehemiah the governor officiated at Jerusalem.

Ezra is indicated to have arrived at the capital city Jerusalem in 457-456 BCE (the 7th year of Artaxerxes 1).

Because a jubilee-year would hypothetically have been celebrated in the year 421-420 BCE, it is clear that the year when Ezra arrived at Jerusalem (457-456 BCE) corresponded with a Sabbatical year of the 50-year-cycle.

It is of special interest that the year 457-456 BCE likewise corresponded with the epoch of 70th year of the kingly cycle.

The actions of Ezra the priest and Nehemiah the governor can be constructed from the writings of Josephus, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, and from the Apocrypha.

The several accounts of the actions of Ezra the priest and Nehemiah the governor all indicate that a special festival was held at the time when Ezra (a ranking priest) read from the books of Moses.

It is here significant - according to a certain passage in the book of Deuteronomy - the law was to be read in public at a certain festival - but only in each 7th year or Sabbatical year.

From the indicated requirement to publicly read the books of Moses in each 7th year, it can be recognized that the time of the priestly reading of the law books corresponded to one of the sets of 7-years (presumably leading up to the celebration of a jubilee-year).

The year when this unique festival was held would probably have been the Sabbatical year that corresponded to the year 443-442 BCE (or the 21st year of Artaxerxes I).

Nehemiah is noted to have become governor of Jerusalem in the 20th year of Artaxerxes I. Moses was then read in the 21st year - as the book of Nehemiah indicates (refer to Nehemiah, Chapter 8).

A yet additional instance of a Sabbatical year can positively be identified from those sources that contain accounts of the actions of Ezra the priest and Nehemiah the governor. In 'Antiquities of the Jews' (by Josephus), is the description of the celebration of an additional feast.

The version of the actions of Ezra and Nehemiah by Josephus is a bit different from the version shown in the biblical books. The description of Josephus is much more plausible in that his description seems to more properly account for the time that would have been required for Nehemiah to receive the office of governor from Artaxerxes I, travel to Jerusalem, rebuild the walls of the city, and ultimately participate in the celebration of a festival.

Based upon a composite analysis of the diverse accounts of Ezra-Nehemiah, it seems that the above-cited festival (held in 443-442 BCE) was not a single occurrence. Essentially, two festivals are mentioned in Antiquities, and the occurrence of only one festival is mentioned in Ezra-Nehemiah. The two festivals were obviously celebrated at different times.

Josephus mentioned that Ezra did read the book of Moses at a respective feast. Though the year-date of this respective feast cannot be determined from the Josephus' record alone, the year-date of this festival can be identified to be the year 443-442 BCE (as cited above).

The Josephus account then becomes of special interest in that the observance of a yet subsequent festival (in the 28th year of Artaxerxes) can be identified. The year of this latter feast would then have corresponded to the year 436-435 BCE.

It is then of large significance that this respective 8-day festival (a second feast) described by Josephus also exactly agrees with the cited jubilee chronology of 50-years.

Thus, from amid the accounts of Ezra the priest and Nehemiah the governor the identification of 3 distinct Sabbatical years can be identified. It is clear that the cited years of 457-456 BCE, 443-442 BCE, and 436-435 BCE did all correspond with Sabbatical years. This respective cluster of Sabbatical years remarkably conforms to a chronological sequence of 7-years. The indicated 7-year sequence exactly agrees with the previously hypothesized jubilee chronology of 50-years.

Cyrus' decree

Some other possible instances of Sabbatical years can be identified from amid the Bible sources.

In the year 536 BCE, a Persian monarch named Cyrus is indicated to have issued a significant decree to rebuild the Temple at Jerusalem (refer to 2 Chronicles 36:22 and Ezra 1:1).

Most scholars agree that the decree to rebuild the Temple was issued when Cyrus ascended to the throne over the Chaldeans in 536 BCE.

It is thus significant that the year 536-535 (when the decree to rebuild the Temple was issued) corresponded with a Sabbatical year (as reckoned amid the count of the cited jubilee-cycle).

It is also of possible significance that the First-Temple was destroyed late in the year 586 BCE (close to the beginning of a 7th year of the cited jubilee-cycle).

The crucifixion

It is of special interest that the year in which Jesus was crucified is indicated to have closely corresponded with the time of a jubilee-year.

Based upon the contents of the book of Luke, it would appear that Jesus was crucified in spring of the year 30 CE.

Autumn of the respective year of 30 CE would have commenced the jubilee-year (if jubilees were commemorated in Jesus' day).

The alignment of the jubilee-year with the year of the death of Jesus means that the crucifixion occurred in the middle of the 49th year prior to the commencement of a 50th year. As such, Jesus was crucified in the middle of a Sabbatical year (or a 7th year) of the jubilee-cycle. (Here it seems pertinent to take into account that jubilees were not officially celebrated in the time of Jesus).

Josephus wrote of a great cycle of 600 years (refer to Antiquities, 1, 3:9). (Note that this 'great cycle' is equal to 12-jubilee-cycles). It is here of special interest that both the jubilee-year of 571-570 BCE (the time of Ezekiel's vision) and the jubilee-year of 30-31 CE (the time after the crucifixion) may have occurred in alignment with a revolution of this respective long-time-cycle (of 600-years).

Conclusions

The following instances of 7th years in the once observed jubilee-cycle can explicitly and implicitly be identified from various ancient sources: 536-535 BCE, 457-456 BCE, 443-442 BCE, 436-435 BCE, 164-163 BCE, 136-135 BCE, and perhaps 122-121 BCE.

If these several instances of 7th years were all projected and condensed as occurring in or after the middle of the pivotal Second Century BCE, then the following years would pertain to Sabbatical years: 164-163 BCE, 157-156 BCE, 143-142 BCE, 136-135 BCE, and perhaps 122-121 BCE.

From the cited projection of Sabbatical years into the Second Century, it's ultimately clear that a jubilee-year could not have been reckoned until prior to the autumn of the year 170 BCE. Likewise, a jubilee-year could not have been reckoned until after autumn of the year 121 BCE. Essentially, from amid the string of projected Sabbatical years there simply is no feasible place that a jubilee-year (a 50th year) could have been celebrated - other than in the year 171-170 BCE.

These alignments then tend to prove that only the year 171-170 BCE (reckoned from the autumn) corresponded with the occurrence of a jubilee-year. Likewise, the year 121-120 (reckoned 50-years later) is proven to have corresponded with the occurrence of a jubilee-year.

Because the several instances of Sabbatical year are spaced throughout a wide number of centuries, it is clear that the cited 50th year was routinely reckoned - two times in each century.

The last time a jubilee-year was officially celebrated in Judea may have been as late as the year 121-120 BCE - and certainly no later. If not as late as the year 121-